Holy Thursday by Blake Essay examples - 1350 Words

Holy Thursday by Blake In Holy Thursday Blake expresses feelings towards the society around him; England in the 18th Century, and the emotional, spiritual and moral poverty. He uses the word holy as he feels people are being sacrilegious to the country and are misusing its ****. Rich is the adjective used to describe the countries material things. Fruitful could mean it is an agricultural and productive place. Another possibility is that it could represent temptation or corruption, like†¦show more content†¦The use of the words bleak and bare used to describe their fields could be a metaphor for their lives. They see their future as having nothing in it, lifeless and empty. Blake says, their ways are filled with thorns, he could mean that they cannot esc ape or that their future has worse things to come. The word winter creates an image of cold and bleakness, and with the addition of eternal makes it seem as if their lives have always been like this, and always will be. The significance of sun and rain in the fourth verse could be that they both are not under mans control; they humble us. Blake could be saying that if the world were not under mans control, and if the poor people were free from oppression, poverty would not exist. Poverty is the result of mans own selfishness. In The Chimney Sweeper and Holy Thursday there are many recurring symbols and themes including the callous attitude of parents to children. In The Chimney Sweeper the children are referred to as little black things. Little emphasises the isolation and vulnerability of the child. The child is described as a black thing among the snow. The snow could represent innocence and purity. The second line has an alliterative w sound with the word weepShow MoreRelatedThe Other Side Of Holy Friday1536 Words   |  7 PagesThe Other Side of Holy Thursday William Blake was a nineteenth century author and creative individual who is considered a huge figure of the Romantic Age. His writings have influenced many writers and artists through the ages, and he has been deemed both a serious author and a creative thinker. One William Blake s works are â€Å"Holy Thursday from Songs of Innocence† and â€Å"Holy Thursday from Songs of Experience.† These two poems by Blake are simple examples of how deep and interesting poetryRead MoreAnalysis Of The Songs Of Innocence And Experience By William Blake1208 Words   |  5 Pagescorruption, according to poet William Blake. It was a city with no hope for poor people, and the government and church did little to help this. Among the poor were children working in slave-like conditions to feed their families and going to charity schools. Blake puts these children at the center of his piece to show the hypocritical nature of the church and how innocent people are suffering from it . He takes on two angles from the same topic: the event of Holy Thursday. By examining it from the lens ofRead MoreSongs of Good and Evil1545 Words   |  7 Pages(Greenblatt, Abrams, Lynch, Stillinger). Blake was born November 28, 1757 in London, England and his artistic ability became evident in his early years. Blake had a very simple upbringing and had little education. His formal education was in art and at the age of fourteen he entered an apprenticeship with a well-known engraver who taught Blake his skills in engraving. In Blake’s free time, he began reading writing poetry. At the age of twenty-one, Blake completed his seven-year apprenticeship andRead More Show how Blake creates opposing attitudes and ideas in his songs of833 Words   |  4 PagesShow how Blake creates opposing attitudes and ideas in his songs of Innocence and Experience. Show how Blake creates opposing attitudes and ideas in his songs of Innocence and Experience.David Jessup 11A1 Blake creates opposing attitudes and ideas by using contrasting, emotive language and also by using characters with opposing opinions and attitudes. In The Chimney Sweeper Blake uses characters with different situations and lifestyles to show how distraught the chimney sweeps canRead MoreCompare and Contrast the Romantics: William Blake and Mary Wollstonecraft1041 Words   |  5 PagesCompare and Contrast The Romantics: William Blake and Mary Wolstonecraft Mary Wollstonecraft’s A Vindication of the Rights of Woman sets out to invalidate the social and religious standards of her time in regards to gender, just as William Blake sets out to do the same for children. Both Blake and Wollstonecraft can be read by the average man and woman, lending its attention toward both upper and middle class. Wollstonecraft’s revolutionary themes of tyranny and oppression of women parallelRead More William Blakes The Chimney-Sweeper, Holy Thursday (Innocence) and London1520 Words   |  7 PagesCompare and Contrast William Blakes The Chimney-Sweeper, Holy Thursday (Innocence) and London I am going to compare and contrast three of William Blake poems, where he shows his feelings about the way people treat children: The Chimney-Sweeper, Holy Thursday (Innocence) and London. The Chimney-Sweeper is about a child who sweeps chimneys. William Blake sets this poem in the winter. The children worked in the cold. Blake says, â€Å"A little black thing among the snow,† â€Å"The little black thingRead MoreThe Influence of the Bible on William Blake Essay1369 Words   |  6 Pages During the British Romantic period, some writers used material from the Bible or imitated the Bible in style of writing or content. William Blake, a Romantic writer, engraver, and painter, believed that â€Å"the Bible was the greatest work of poetry ever written† (Barker 2004). The Bible influenced him throughout this life, specifically influencing both his writing and his art. There are many references to Biblical themes within his writing, and there are also many references to specific passagesRead MorePoetry Of Songs Of Innocence And The Little Black Boy Essay977 Words   |  4 Pagesâ€Å"London†, â€Å"Holy Thursday†, â€Å"The Lamb†, â€Å"The Tyger†, â€Å"The Nurse’s Song†, and â€Å"The Little Black Boy† are all written by William Blake. His two main collection of his poetry are Songs of Innocence and Songs of Experience. à ¢â‚¬Å"The Lamb†, â€Å"The Nurse’s Song†, and â€Å"The Little Black Boy† belong to the collection of Song of Innocence because of the theme of happiness. â€Å"The Tyger†, â€Å"London†, and â€Å"Holy Thursday† belong to the collection of Songs of Experience because of the theme of darkness. The collectionRead MoreThe Poetry of William Blake1806 Words   |  8 PagesThis essay will aim to show the relationship between Innocence and Experience in William Blakes Songs. Both Songs of Experience and Songs of Innocence serve as a mirror Blake held up to society, the Songs of Experience being the darker side of the mirror. Blakes Songs show two imaginative realms: The two sides to the human soul that are the states of Innocence and Experience. The two states serve as different ways of seeing. The world of innocence as Northrop Frye saw it encapsulated theRead MoreBlake s Use Of Nature Through Songs Of Innocence1914 Words   |  8 PagesExperience were written by William Blake and published together in 1798. In Songs of Innocence and Songs of Experience the nature is a key feature; in some poems the nature seems to be close, and sometimes it is more remote. The distance of nature from society does not play a role in Blake’s poems; although in Songs of Innocence the adjacent nature is peaceful and soothing, in Songs of Experience the imminent nature appears to be very scary and dangerous. Blake uses of nature through his poems express

Just Like Us - 1218 Words

Argumentative Essay about Helen Thorpe’s Just Like Us Just Like Us by Helen Thorpe is â€Å"The True Story of Four Mexican Girls Coming of Age in America.† The story revolves around four high school students; Marisela who is a gaudy, driven, dramatic girl who wears â€Å"twice as much makeup as anybody else in her circle.†(8) Yadira who is a strong and reserved girl who â€Å"never gave away anything important with her facial expressions.†(8) Elissa is a star athlete and Clara usually dresses like a tomboy. They are all eighteen years of age and top students at Theodore Roosevelt High School together in Denver, Colorado, whose parents all came to the United States illegally from Mexico. All four of the girls have grown up in the United States. They†¦show more content†¦Ã¢â‚¬Å"Marisela paid state and federal taxes, even though she would never collect social security payments—she was padding the fund for Americas legal retirees.† (39) This quote proves that the image that most Americans have toward illegal immigrants is a distorted. Many Americans argue the fact that Illegal Immigrants do not pay taxes and take away from our economy but that is not necessarily true. The only time that is true is when they work â€Å"under the table†, which means that they do not pay any taxes to the government for their wages they get paid straight cash from their employers. In this specific case, Marisela is paying taxes to the government because she is paying taxes to the United States; she is contributing positively to the economy and paying into social security. She is paying into this even though she may never be able to benefit from it. Marisela is doing everything right by working and being a productive member of society, this includes paying her taxes, she is not trying to get out of that by working under the table, as some Illegal Immigrants do. The only problem with what Marisela is doing is that she is wo rking under a false social security number, but if she was given the same opportunities and privileges as document immigrants she would not be using fake identification to be able to work. â€Å"If spending time with Yadira and Marisela had taught meShow MoreRelatedEssay on Just Like Us2068 Words   |  9 PagesCynthia Camacho Vindrola Steven Mayers English 1A 06/09/2013 Just Like Us The immigration problem in America has been dividing the document and undocumented people, in the book Just Like Us, by Helen Thorpe, she tells the story of four Mexican – American girls who live in Denver Colorado. Marisela and Yadira, were born in Mexico and are undocumented while Clara was born in Mexico too it is a permanent resident, and Elissa is a U.S citizen. They are best friend and their relationship it is notRead MoreJust Like Us by Helen Thorpe Essay1172 Words   |  5 PagesJust like Us by Helen Thorpe was on systematic study of four young Mexican women growing up in the suburbs of Denver, Colorado with two of the women living in the country as legal residents and the other two living as undocumented. The definition of sociology is defined as â€Å"the systematic study behavior and human groups.† (Scheuble, 2014). Thus definition and can be directly applied the Thorpe’s novel and specifically to the illegal immigrant status of the girls. Throughout her novel she exploresRead MoreSam And Kat And Jo1349 Words   |  6 Pageshad a group of friends, which we called ‘the group.’ The only thing you need to know about ‘the group’ is that: 1. We were separated into ‘the guys’ and us ‘the girls,’ and 2. Is that we did everything together. Our favorite activity included sleepovers and playing monster pong, our version of beer pong without the alcohol. However, this story is just about the girls of the group. There is, Sam was the brains of the friendship. Straight A’s are not enough; she wants straight 100’s. It’s funny thoughRead MorePrivacy Is A Good Thing977 Words   |  4 PagesPrivacy is a very big word to us, seems like everyone should have own privacy about everything. And sometimes we are confuse about even a couple do have their own privacy. It makes us to think does people have that much secrets which can not show to other people. There is a living example is that a mother got a phone call form her daughter’s college classmate that claim that her daughter missed all two years class which lead to she even can not graduate. But this daughter only told her mother thatRead MoreHope for the Flowers1631 Words   |  7 Pagesone of us. We have a particular goal in life: to attain perfect happiness. Just like Stripe, who gets tired of his everyday routine, we also get tired of what we keep on doing and thinks that there must be something more to life out there. We wanted to go out and discover, to find out something interesting, to find the most perfect thing that would satisfy us. Well in this case, the most perfect material thing, because once we get that thing, we would still eventually be unsatisfied, just like StripeRead MoreEssay about Hope for the Flowers by Trina Paulus1589 Words   |  7 Pagesone of us. We have a particular goal in life: to attain perfect happiness. Just like Stripe, who gets tired of his everyday routine, we also get tired of what we keep on doing and thinks that there must be something more to life out there. We wanted to go out and discover, to find out something interesting, to find the most perfect thing that would satisfy us. Well in this case, the most perfect material thing, because once we get that thing, we would still eventually be unsatisfied, just like StripeRead MoreAll Summer in a Day by Ray Bradbury Imagery Essay907 Words   |  4 Pagescontrast which helps us understand the idea that peo ple who are different are ostracised and hated. With the use of sensory imagery, Ray Bradbury paints a picture in our minds of how the planet Venus in his story looks and sounds like. He describes this planet where it â€Å"†¦had been raining for seven years†¦Ã¢â‚¬  as the sound and look of â€Å"†¦tatting drum, the endless shaking down of clear bead necklaces upon the rood, the walk, the gardens, the forest†¦Ã¢â‚¬  This tells us that the rain sounds like a constant drumRead MoreThe Allegory Of The Cave And Freire s The Banking Essay1745 Words   |  7 PagesIn Plato’s The Allegory of the Cave and Freire’s Theâ€Å"Banking† Concept of Education, the idea of education and restrictions is discussed and pondered on. In The Allegory of the Cave, Plato tells us his ideas and beliefs through a story that involves three prisoners who are chained up in a cave. Their backs are towards the entrance, and they are only exposed to shadows and echoes. When one of the prisoners is released he enters a world filled with confusion and disbelief. In Freire’s The â€Å"Banking†Read MoreEssay Justus Case1251 Words   |  6 PagesJust Us! Case Just Us! is a corporation that imports, roasts and sells primarily organic coffee from fair traded certified coffee producers. Their vision is: â€Å"to be a leading Fair Trade business that builds on quality, professionalism and innovation for the benefit of all our stake holders. Since its inception, Just Us! had experienced healthy growth in the maritime provinces of Canada, mainly supported by its corporate values: social and environmental responsibility, sustainability, ethical practicesRead MoreAnalysis Of Stopping By The Woods923 Words   |  4 PagesStopping by the woods shows us that the setting of the poem is in a dark which is also the darkest night of the year in snowy forest. This poem also teaches us the overall theme of the poem which is a life lesson and the lesson is that life should be lived to its fullest and not by using shortcuts, and that people should view their life positively. The poem Acquainted with the Night shows us that the setting of the poem is also on a dark night. This poem also teaches us the overall theme of the poem

Pak Us Relations Free Essays

In the 18th century Kashmir was ruled by the Muslim Pashtun Durrani Empire. In 1819 Kashmir was conquered by the Sikh ruler Ranjit Singh. Following the First Anglo-Sikh War in 1845 and 1846, Kashmir was first ceded by the Treaty of Lahore to the East India Company, and shortly after sold by the Treaty of Amritsar to Gulab Singh, Raja of Jammu, who thereafter was given the title Maharaja of Jammu and Kashmir. We will write a custom essay sample on Pak Us Relations or any similar topic only for you Order Now From then until the Partition of India, Kashmir was ruled by the Hindu Maharajas of the princely state of Kashmir and Jammu although the majority of the population were Muslim, except in the Jammu region. 1)BACKGROUND: In 1947, British rule in India ended with the creation of two new nations: the Union of India and the Dominion of Pakistan while British suzerainty over the 562 Indian princely states ended. In 1843 the Britain sold Kashmir to Ghulam Singh in 7. 5 million rupees.According to the Indian Independence Act 1947, the states were left to choose whether to join India or Pakistan or to remain independent. Jammu and Kashmir, the largest of the princely states, had a predominantly Muslim population while having a Hindu ruler (Maharaja Hari Singh. ) On partition Pakistan expected Kashmir to be annexed to it. In October 1947, Muslim revolutionaries in western Kashmir and Pakistani tribals from Dir entered Kashmir intending to liberate it from Dogra rule. Freedom fighters marched toward Sarinagar and occupied 6 miles erritory. Unable to withstand the invasion, the Maharaja signed the Instrument of Accession that was accepted by the government of India on 27 October 1947. As the result of 1965 war the valley of Jammu and Kashmir has been divided in fourth parts: i)Ladakh and Jammu and Kashmir: This is Indian occupied territory. ii)Azad Jammu and Kahsmir: This is under in Pakistani administration iii)Northern Areas: Qarakaram, Gilgit, Biltistan They are separated and have their own administration by their self. iv)Aksai Chin:This is under the control of China. China occupied on this territory on war of 1962. 2)INDIAN PERSPECTIVE: Indian viewpoint is succinctly summarized by Ministry of External affairs, Government of India: †¢ India holds that the Instrument of Accession of the State of Jammu and Kashmir to the Union of India, signed by Maharaja Hari Singh on 26 October 1947, was completely valid in terms of the Government of India Act (1935), Indian Independence Act (1947) and international law and was total and irrevocable. United Nations Security Council Resolution 1172 tacitly accepts India’s stand regarding all outstanding issues between India and Pakistan and urges the need to resolve the dispute through mutual dialogue and does not call for a plebiscite. †¢ United Nations Security Council Resolution 47 cannot be implemented since Pakistan failed to withdraw its forces from Kashmir which was the first step in implementing the resolution. †¢ India does not accept the two-nation theory that forms the basis of Pak istan and argues that Kashmir, despite being a Muslim-majority state, is in many ways an â€Å"integral part† of secular India. The state of Jammu and Kashmir was provided significant autonomy in the Article 370 of the Constitution of India. †¢ All differences between India and Pakistan including Kashmir need to be settled through bilateral negotiations as agreed to by the two countries when they signed the Simla Agreement on 2 July 1972. †¢ Insurgency and terrorism in Kashmir is deliberately being fueled by Pakistan to create instability in the region. The Government of India has repeatedly accused Pakistan of waging a proxy war in Kashmir by providing weapons and financial assistance to terrorist groups in the region..Indian policy toward Kashmir they operate their policy by three levels: i)Local ii)Bilateral level iii)International level i)Local Level: At local level the principle of Indian by save Army to crash of freedom fighter. And manipulating and try to constraint different freedom groups. ii)Bilateral Level: Indian always kept all friendly pedicure for negotiation†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. India never desalted for talk but the reasalti †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ Is that India never accepting freedom of Pakistan? iii)International Level: The Indian policy as primarily aim at objective: Pakistan is trying to raise anti-India sentiment among the people of Kashmir by spreading false propaganda against India. According to the state government of Jammu and Kashmir, Pakistani radio and television channels deliberately spread â€Å"hate and venom† against India to alter Kashmiri opinion. †¢ India points out at various reports by human rights organizations condemning Pakistan for the lack civic liberties in Pakistan-administered Kashmir. According to India, most regions of Pakistani Kashmir, especially Northern Areas, continue to suffer from lack of political recognition, economic development and basic fundamental rights. India has asked United Nations that it should not be leave unchallenged or unaddressed claims of moral, political and diplomatic support for terrorism, which were clearly in contravention of United Nations Security Council resolution that makes it mandatory for member states to not provide active or passive support to terrorist organizations. Specifically, it has pointed out that the Pakistani government continues to support various terrorist organizations, such as Jaish-e-Mohammad and Lashkar-e-Taiba, in direct violation of this resolution. 3)PAKISTANI PROSPECTIVE:Pakistan says that Kashmir is a disputed territory whose final status must be determined by the people of Kashmir. Pakistan always keep same just Jammu and Kashmir is occupied territory exception of India. Pakistan seas fire signed under the coercive pressure. And is here no legal and moral justification. And because the UN security council also accept the self deternation of the Kashmiri people and that’s way UN resolution still alive and effective. Atal Bihari Vajpai visited to Pakistan in January 1999, because Bhartia Janta Party always tried to solve Kashmir issue.Vajpai came in Pakistan by bus service. Prime Minister Nawaz Shareef and Bihari Vajpai signed a declaration that called Lahore Declaration. In that time raised Kargil issue in October 1999, taken over by the Chief of Army Staff. When Musharaf was President of Pakistan, he invited by Atal Bihari Vajpai (PM of India). They signed a declaration in July 2002, at Agrah, that is called Agra summit. These are the efforts was made by the Pakistan. 4)POSSIBLE SOLUTIONS OF KASHMIR DISPUTE:Several options have been proposed for solution of the  Kashmir  dispute but this intricate problem has remained un-solved causing enormous financial and material costs to all parties to the conflict. Although list of proposals for resolution of  Kashmir  dispute is quite large but the following major possible solutions have been put forward from time to time to resolve the dispute of Kashmir. i)Plebiscite ii)Line of Control (LOC) as International Border iii)Independent  Kashmir iv)United Nations Trusteeship In the following pages I have examined the above solutions and their implications for Pakistan  and  India. I)UNITED NATIONS PLEBISCITE: On  2nd November 1947  speaking on all Indian Radio Pundit Jawaharlal Lal Nehru said, â€Å"Fate of State of Jammu ; Kashmir is ultimately to be decided by the people. The pledge we have given not only to people of  Kashmir  but also to the world. We will not and cannot back out of it†. The United Nations resolutions of  August 13, 1948  and  January 5, 1949, proposed the plebiscite option for resolving the  Kashmir  dispute. These resolutions laid down the principles and procedures for a free and impartial plebiscite under UN auspices.Both India  and  Pakistan  accepted the United Nations Resolutions. The Indian Government would never be ready to accept the right of option under international supervision because it is aware that there is no possibility of winning the plebiscite and majority of population would vote against Indian occupation. But due to some facts there is no possibility of solution on the basis of the United Nations resolutions, as  India  would never agree for their implementation. II)LINE OF CONTROL (LOC) AS INTERNATIONAL BORDER:Resolution of dispute on basis of line of control or ceasefire line was proposed by Indian leadership immediately after end of first Pakistan – India war (1947-48), which ended under an arrangement worked out through United Nations and a cease-fire was agreed with effect from 1st January1949. It virtually divided Kashmir in to Pakistan administered Azad Kashmir and Northern Areas and Indian occupied valley, Jammu and Ladakh around 63% of total land of former State of Jammu ; Kashmir occupied by India. The name of cease-fire line (740 km) was changed under Simla agreement 1972 as line of control (LOC).In the United Nations maps Kashmir is still being shown as disputed territory. It is quite evident that any settlement on basis of line of control is not possible as bo th parties have contradictory views in the matter. III)INDEPENDENT  KASHMIR  OPTION: Over the last 57 years political manipulations, Indian repression, rigging of elections and broken promises has created a sense of alienation among Kashmiri population and they have become more defiant and assertive. The option of Independent Kashmir was not part of the United Nations Resolutions as at that time Security Council. Pakistan although in ast had refused to endorse the independence option but in changed environment may be willing to consider the idea of independent Kashmiri country for Valley. The idea of Independence for Kashmir means surrender of authorities and sovereignty to a United Kashmir by both India ; Pakistan. IV)UNITED NATIONS TRUSTEESHIP OPTION: There is a proposal that to resolve the issue of  Kashmir  for some time the territory may be placed under control of trusteeship of United Nations and after a period of ten to fifteen years the matter may be referred to the people for the final verdict with regard to future status of the State.This arrangement will provide a face-saving arrangement for  India, and will also give Kashmiris, on both sides of Line of Control, enough time to decide their future without any pressure or compulsion from any country or group. Indi a  has been insisting that occupied  Kashmir  is its integral part. There is no possibility that India  will agree to UN trusteeship. However  India  continues to hold fixed position on  Kashmir  and appears to be not considering any other option outside Indian constitution as such there is no possibility of  India  agreeing to proposal of trusteeship under U.N. O. ***** 27-10-2010 to 4-11-2010 PAKISTAN – UNITED STATES RELATIONS INTRODUCTION: Pakistan – United States relations are the relations between the Islamic Republic of Pakistan and the United States of America. The United States established diplomatic relations with Pakistan started on October 20, 1947. The relationship since then was based primarily on U. S. economic and military assistance to Pakistan. Pakistan is a Major non-NATO ally of the United States. THE INITIAL YEARS 1947-1952:After the creation of the two countries, Pakistan followed a more pro western policy whereas the Indian government defined its foreign policy with a more leftist to non aligned stance. Pakistan was looking for strong friends in order to persuade its bigger and much stronger neighbor India to give in to its claims over the territory of Kashmir. Pakistan also needed financial support for its infrastructure development and modernization of its armed forces. Right from the beginning the founder father of Pakistan sent its representative to the US government for financial and military assistance.Pakistan based its case on the post World War scenario of confrontation between the Soviet Union and the West. Pakistan contented that the Soviet Union wanted to get access to the Arabian Sea and to increase its influence in the Middle East. Pakistan was a nation beyond Afghanistan that could avert such Soviet designs. Pakistan as a Muslim state had no affiliations with the communists and was a natural regional ally for the United States. On the other hand, the ruling party in India, the Indian National Congress, and India’s leaders were closer in ideology to socialism and the Soviet Union.As a US ally in the region, Pakistan could provide a foot hold for the US in the region against any Soviet expansionist efforts in South Asia. From the US perspective, the United States was more occupied in the post war reconstruction in Western Europe and Japan, its containment efforts in South East Asia and the Middle East. The United States in the initial years of Pakistan was less interested in getting involved in the emerging conflicts of South Asia. The Pakistanis wanted to strengthen their relations with the US so as to get an advantage in their confrontation with India over Kashmir.On the other hand, the US did not see the usefulness of a strong relationship with Pakistan and US interests in Pakistan were limited. The Kashmir dispute dragged on despite UN Security Council resolutions that were agreed upon by both Pakistan and India in 1949 for a ceasefire and proposal for a plebiscite. The Kashmir issue remained unresolved and became the main bone of contention between India and Pakistan resulting in three subsequent wars. THE EVOLVING RELATIONS ; AYUB ERA 1952-1969: Prospects for Pakistan’s relations with US improved after Republican Eisenhower came to power in 1952 in the White House.Pakistan pushed its case as an ally that could provide support for Middle East security and in return it asked for military and economic support for its flail economy. Unstable domestic politics had led to political and economic distress while the bureaucratic and military officers were getting stronger in the country. The Republican government was more receptive of the Pakistani position and its claims of anti communist stand and an available allied state. Pakistan joined with Turkey as member of the Middle East Defense Organization (MEDO) in 1954. This allowed Pakistan to formally seek aid as a regional ally of the US.In January 1955, Pakistan joined South East Asian Treaty Organization (SEATO) with a view to adding security to the East Asian flank of anti communist alignment. However, it was not clear how Pakistan’s role in both these organizations would actually materialize in the case of an actual conflict. However, for the Pakistanis, becoming part of these alliances allowed the country to create stronger links with the US administration and seek increasing aid. In September 1955, Pakistan became a member of the Baghdad Pact organization which later became known as CENTO. Turkey, Iran and Iraq were its earlier members with the US as the backer of the security arrangement. The role of this organization was similar to the earlier MEDO as a northern-tier defense arrangement against communist influence in the Middle East. â€Å"In the end, neither the Baghdad Pact not SEATO amounted to much militarily. †¦Joining the Baghdad Pact and SEATO gave Pakistan a strengthened claim on US resources and, in turn, the US acquired an even larger stake in Pakistan’s well being. As Pakistan’s president Ayub Khan put it in his biography, â€Å"Friends Not Masters†, Pakistan had become America’s â€Å"most allied ally in Asia†.A key development from Pakistan’s perspective was the amount of development and military aid that started in 1954 and increased to $500 million by 1957 as a result of Pakistan’s joining the regional defense organizations and allying with the USA. During the second Eisenhower term, the relations between the two countries became even stronger. Pakistan’s Army Chief staged a military coup in 1958 and later became the President of Pakistan. Field Marshal Ayub Khan had developed strong relations with the Americans and his era from 1958 to 1969 turned out to a strong era of US- Pakistan relations.In 1959, Aub’s government allowed the US to set up an intelligence facility in Badaber, NWFFP province and operate U2 surveillance flights over the Soviet Union from its Peshawar Airport. This arrangement and the closer relationship of the Pakistani government with the US administration allowed it to acquire increasing military hardware and arms for its defense services. The issue troubling the US was Pakistan’s closer relations with China. The Indians and Chinese had fought a war in 1962 in which China had given India a bloody nose.As a result Pakistan moved to improve and strengthen its relations with China in order to position itself as a stronger foe for India. However, Pakistan’s growing friendship with communist China irked the US who was facing a proxy war against the communists in Vietnam. Pakistan and India fought a war in 1965 that was an ill fated affair started by a limited guerilla war in Kashmir that Ayub started in order to pressurize India to come to the negotiating table over Kashmir. However, as the war spread, Pakistan could not sustain a long term conflict and asked for a truce and both forces moved back to their previous borders.BHUTTO EAR 1972 – 1977: Prime Minister Bhutto initially focused his attention with normalizing the domestic situation in the country. The Government of Pakistan signed a truce with India, recognized the government of Bangladesh and eventually the 90,000 prisoners were returned by India. The major challenge for the new government came in May, 1974 when India executed an underground nuclear test. This forced the Pakistanis to also seek a nuclear weapons program to match India’s c apabilities. This became a major cause for concern for the US administration.Pakistan started efforts to acquire a nuclear fuel reprocessing plant from France and a heavy water facility from West Germany. During Bhutto’s government Pakistan’s foreign policy was aligned to see ka balance between its relations with China, Russia and the USA. Pakistan placed a special emphasis on its relations with the Arab countries in the Middle East. During Ford and later Jimmy Carter’s administration, sanctions were placed on Pakistan related to export control and restriction of aid grants. Prime Minister Bhutto called elections in March 1977 from which he gained a landslide victory.However, the opposition blamed it on massive rigging and started a public campaign to oust Bhutto. Prime Minister Bhutto claimed in public rhetoric that the American were behind the opposition movement and wanted to punish his government for its nuclear weapons program and alignment with the Arabs. In July 1977, the Army seized power in a coup for the third time in the country. General Zia initially promised elections but later firmed his grip on the government and started a murder trial against Bhutto which eventually led to Bhutto’s hanging for the alleged crime in 1979. ZIA ERA 1977 – 1988:After hanging the former Prime Minister, Zia strengthened his hold on the government and used a cover of Islamic reforms to give credibility to his government. Jimmy Carter’s administration developed closer relations with India while Pakistan was more or less isolated due to its new military dictators. On the nuclear front, General Zia continued the previous policy of Bhutto in acquiring and developing capabilities for nuclear weapons. The chilling relations between the US and Pakistan took another a U-turn when the Soviet Army entered neighboring Afghanistan in December 1979 to support the local communist government. Just four days after the Soviet invasion, On December 29, 1979, Jimmy Carter approved a broader covert action program that instructed the CIA to provide military weapons and ammunition †¦for the Afghan anticommunist fighters, who soon became widely knows as â€Å"mujahideen†Ã¢â‚¬ ¦At Pakistan’s insistence, the CIA funneled all aid through the Pakistani intelligence service ISI, which in turn handed over supplies to Afghans. With the Reagan Administration in the White House, the support for the covert war in Afghanistan increased along with the value of he Pakistani cooperation. Pakistan was rewarded with a $3. 2 billion aid package for the next six years. As the Afghan war progressed more than three million refugees entered Pakistan. During this period, Pakistan was considered a valuable ally and the US ignored the increasing developments on the nuclear front as well as the human rights abuses by the Zia regime. The success of the Afghan war effort was crucial for the American Administration as it was bled the Soviet Government and placed huge pressure in terms of resources. Fed up with the costs of the war and covert operations by the mujahideen, supported by the CIA and the Pakistani ISI, by 1988, the Russians had had enough and were ready for a respectable evacuation from Afghanistan. The usefulness of Pakistan for the USA with respect to Afghanistan, thus, ended when Mikhail Gorbachev agreed to a retreat in April 1988. General Zia died in a mysterious plane crash months later in August 1988 and political elections were held in Pakistan. BENAZIR BHUT AND NAWAZ SHAREEF ERA: 1988 – 1998:After the 1988 elections, Benazir Bhutto, the daughter of former Prime Minister Bhutto, came into power. Until 1990, the $600 million military and economic aid that had started after the Afghan War effort by the US had continued. However, every year, the US president had to certify under the Pressler Amendment, enacted in 1984, that Pakistan did not posses a nuclear device. â€Å"After October 1, 1990, passed without certification, the $564 million economic and m ilitary aid program approved for fiscal year 1991 was frozen. At the time, Pakistan was the third-highest recipient of US aid; only Israel and Egypt received more assistance† (Refrence 1) . At this point the main occupation of the Pakistan government was to try to create a friendly mujahideen regime in Afghanistan, continue to develop its nuclear and missile program and support the militant insurgency in Kashmir. Since the US and Pakistani interests had diverted at this point, with the Soviets retreating from Afghanistan and the US involved in the Middle East, the Pakistanis felt isolated by their â€Å"old friend† and â€Å"ally†.Domestic politics, once again, became unstable and four successive governments in Pakistan were dissolved one after another in a matter of 11 years with the Army, as always, the main power broker among the political stalwarts. Benazir held the Prime Minister’s office twice from 1988-1990 and from 1993-1996. Her main opponent, Nawaz Sharif, held office from 1990-1993 and 1996-1999. Gross fisc al mismanagement, political instability and US sanctions created large fiscal deficits and the governments borrowed heavily from international lenders. The Clinton Administration had a tilt towards the more democratic Indian government during this time.The Pakistanis contented that the Pressler Amendment was specific to Pakistan and the sanctions were unjustified. Additional sanctions were placed after Pakistan acquired M11 missiles and delivery systems technology from China which violated the MTCR regime. By 1996 Pakistan’s Afghan efforts were bringing some success and the ISI backed Taliban government was established in Afghanistan. The US administration initially welcome the prospects of peace in the country but later opposed the Taliban regime based on their extreme fundamentalist views and gross violations of human rights.A new turn of events unfolded in May 1998 when the new Indian government tested several nuclear devices. The Clinton Administration put a lot of pressure on the Pakistani government to refrain from tit for tat nuclear tests. However, Pakistan government came under intense internal pressure and detonated their nuclear devices two weeks later. Although a new nuclear deterrent had been established between India and Pakistan, another wave of international sanctions followed from the international community.This put further pressure on the already weak political economy of Pakistan. The US had a new interest in Afghanistan by mid 1998 after the terrorist attacks on US Embassies in Kenya and Tanzania which killed two hundred people and were carried on by an organization belonging to Osama Bin Ladin, a former Saudi national living in Afghanistan. The US administration wanted Pakistan to use its influence on the Taliban to make them handover the culprit over to the US. However, the Taliban refused and new animosity started in the region.In early 1999, Pakistan had a spate of diplomatic discussion to improve their relations with India but by mid 1999, a limited war had erupted in Kargil between the two countries which had been covertly engineered by the Pakistani Army. As India increased pressure and an escalating war scenario emerged, the US intervened on the request of Pakistan and the armies retreated to their pre war positions. The main casualty in the war turned out to the Pakistani Premier Nawaz Sharif who tried to oust the military commander but a military executed a coup and the military came into power for the fourth time led by General Musharraf.CONCLUSION: In the historical context of US-Pakistan relations, it is obvious that the mutual relations between the two countries are based on convergence of common interests from time to time. When the US required U2 surveillance flight facilities and an intelligence base against the Soviets (1959-1968), backdoor diplomacy with the Chinese (1970-72), covert operations against the Red Army in Afghanistan (1980-88) and recently the war against terrorism (2001 – ), it has extended its best hand forward in terms of military and economic aid as well as support for unelected military dictators .On the other hand, Pakistan during this time has had modest success in growing its economy with economic aid from the US and from the World Bank and IMF. Pakistan has performed better in achieving its goal of a nuclear balance with India with its extensive missile and nuclear programs. However, time will tell how long the present cooperation between the USA and Pakistan lasts and how much can the Pakistanis get in reward for their cooperation with US war against Osama Bin Ladin and his Al-Qaida organization. ****** Lecture No: 7Dated: 5-10-2010PAK ROLE IN WAR AGAINST TERRORISM Musharraf – 9/11 and beyond – partners in the fight against terrorism: Pak-us relation between 2001-2010 †¢ What is Terrorism? †¢ Background history †¢ U. S. S. R. invasion Afghanistan †¢ After 9/11 †¢ Effect of Post WHAT IS TERISM? There are different concept and definations: i. The use of voilance by groups a states to atimidats (to threaton someone) cause fear or viotimise someone to achive politcal goals. This is a concise defination. General Musharraf took power at a time when the economic situation of the country was in deep trouble.The rupee was sliding, foreign reserves had been depleted and rampant corruption had messed up the infrastructure of the country. By year 2000, Pakistan after more than 53 years of independence was still struggling to find a stable political system and an economic infrastructure that would generate sustainable development and improve the quality of life for its people. From the United States perspective, Pakistan was moving closer to a â€Å"failed state† case and it’s nuclear and missile programs were a constant concern for policy makers in Washington.A failing economy could easily lead to another coup backed by the Islamists and the country could fall in fundamentalist hands along with its arsenal of nuclear weapons. With this scenario in view, the US administration more or less supported the Musharraf regime in its efforts to build a more stable economy in Pakistan. 9/11 changed the nature of US – Pakistan relations once again. Terrorists supported by Osama Bin Ladin’s organization had executed successful attacks in New York and Washington in September 2001.The US President George Bush asked the world to make a clear choice to side with the US with the slogan â€Å"you are with us or against us†. President Musharraf’s regime, which was previously a supporter and backer of the Taliban regime since its inception, made a U-turn and sided with the US in its war against terrorism. Siding with the US, Musharraf betted that the decision would result in improving foreign aid and support from World Bank and IMF on the one hand and US support for Pakistan’s cause for Kashmir on the other.In the last two years, Pakistan has helped the US capture several hundred operatives of the Al-Qiada organization and has allowed the US to execute military operations from its land, air and sea bases. In return for its cooperation, there has been some economic revival of the Pakistani economy. On the Kas hmir front, however, not much progress has been made since India has projected Pakistan as a supported of terrorism in Kashmir itself, a label vehemently denied by the Pakistanis. ****** Licture No. Dated: 8-11-2010 PAK-CHINA RELATION Pakistan and China have a common border. The memories of cultural contacts are rooted in the ancient part and can be traced down to the beginning of Islam. Trade and commercial connections existed between Muslim world and China. When Pakistan came into being on August 14, 1947, China was passing through a critical situation caused by the civil war between the Nationalists and Communists. In the long run the communist forces in China were declared a communist country.LEGITIMATE RECOGNITION: A newly born communist China had to face many problems; for example the problem of recognition as a legitimate Government and membership of UNO. As a matter of fact Western countries and allies of Nationalist Government were not ready to extend recognition to the new communist Chinese Government. Pakistan boldly refused to stand by the western countries. Pakistan and China have enjoyed a generally close and mutually beneficial relationship over several decades.Pakistan served as a link between Beijing and Washington in 1971, as well as a bridge to the Muslim world for China during the 1980s. China’s continuing role as a major arms supplier for Pakistan began in the 1960s and included helping to build a number of arms factories in Pakistan, as well as supplying complete weapons systems. After the 1990 imposition of U. S. sanctions on Pakistan, the Islamabad-Beijing arms relationship was further strengthened. Pakistan continues to view China as an â€Å"all-weather friend† and perhaps its most important strategic ally.MEMBERSHIP OF THE U. N. O: Pakistan strongly advocated China’s entry in the UNO despite opposition from the U. S. A. where the resolution for China’s entry to the UNO was moved in September, 1950. Pakistan not only voted in favour of the resolution but openly criticised the attitude and policy adopted by the USA and western countries. KORIAN WAR: During China-Korea War, Pakistan showed friendly behaviour toward China. Pakistan accused Korea of aggression. Pakistan abstained from voting on the resolution which was moved to impose embargo on China.This policy of Pakistan proved fruitful in developing cordial relations between China and Pakistan. The Prime Ministers of Pakistan and China met with each other during the Afro-Asian Conference. The meeting between the Prime Minister of China and that of Pakistan paved the ay for solid friendship. The following years witnessed growing co-operation in almost all spheres of life. For this purpose, contacts between the two countries were accelerated, various delegations were exchanged and agreements were signed.Chou En Lai said on Pakistan Independence Day in 1956 â€Å"In the years to come our good neighbourly relation will be further promoted and our cultural and economic intercourse will become more and more frequent. † INDO-PAKISTAN WAR 1965: India attacked Pakistan in September, 1965. Pakistan was taken by surprise and fell in deep trouble to Indian attack. At this critical moment China came forward with moral and material help. She declared India as aggressor. There attached a page of Pak-China relation, provided by Sir Ghulam Jilani. ****** Lecture No. Dated: 10-11-2010 SOME IMPORTANT TERMINOLOGIES AND CONCEPTS 1)GENEVA ACCORD: The Geneva Initiative, also known as the Geneva Accord, is a model permanent status agreement to end the Israeli-Palestinian conflict based on previous official negotiations, international resolutions, the Quartet Roadmap, the Clinton Parameters, and the Arab Peace Initiative. The Geneva Initiative addresses and presents a comprehensive solution to all issues vital to ensuring the end of the conflict and the realization of the national visions of both parties.It would give Palestinians almost all of the West Bank and Gaza Strip drawing Israel’s borders close to what existed prior to the Israeli annexation of territory at the culmination of the 1967 war. 2)END OF HISTORY: The Revolutions of 1989 (also known as the Fall of Communism, the Collapse of Communism, the Revolutions of Eastern Europe and the Autumn of Nations) are the revolutions which overthrew Soviet-style communist states in Eastern-bloc European countries. 3)BAGHDAD PACTCENTRAL TREATY ORGANIZATION The Central Treaty Organization (also referred to as CENTO, original name was Middle East Treaty Organization or METO, also known as the Baghdad Pact) was adopted in 1955 by Iran, Iraq, Pakistan, Turkey, and the United Kingdom. It was dissolved in 1979. U. S. pressure and promises of military and economic aid were key in the negotiations leading to the agreement, although the United States could not initially participate â€Å"for purely technical reasons of budgeting procedures. In 1958, the United States joined the military committee of the alliance. It is generally viewed as one of the least successful of the Cold War alliances. The organization’s headquarters were initially located in Baghdad (Iraq) 1955–1958 and Ankara (Turkey) 1958–1979. 4)NON-ALIGNMENT MOVEMENT: The Non-Aligned Movement (NAM) is an intergovernmental organization of states considering themselves not aligned formally with or against any major power bloc. The movement emerged in the 1960s during the Cold War between East and West 1949–89.Although originally used by poorer states, the non-aligned position was later adopted by oil-producing nations The purpose of the organisation as stated in the Havana Declaration of 1979 is to ensure â€Å"the national independence, sovereignty, territorial integrity and security of non-aligned countries 5)EXTRADITION A formal process by which a criminal suspect held by one government is handed over to another government for trial or, if the suspect has already been tried and found guilty, to serve his or her sentence. ORExtradition is the official process whereby one nation or state surrenders a suspected or convicted criminal. Between nation states, extradition is regulated by treaties. Where extradition is compelled by laws, such as among sub-national jurisdictions, the concept may be known more generally as rendition. 6)AGRA SUMMIT: A historic summit meeting was held between Pakistan’s President Pervez Musharraf and the Indian Prime Minister Atal Behari Vajpayee in Agra, from July 14 to 16, 2001. The summit started amid high hopes of resolving various disputes between the two countries including the five decades old Kashmir issue.Both sides started the summit with hopefulness and in a spirit of good will; especially President Musharraf used the phrases â€Å"cautious optimism†, â€Å"flexibility† and â€Å"open mind† to describe his buoyant views for the summit. The Indian President also promised to take â€Å"bold and innovative† measures and to discuss the â€Å"core issue† between the two countries. 7)THE IRON CURTAIN SPEECH (1946): â€Å"Iron Curtain† is a term used to describe the boundary that separated the Warsaw Pact countries from the NATO countries from about 1945 until the end of the Cold War in 1991.The Iron Curtain was both a physical and an ideological division that represented the way Europe was viewed after World War II. To the east of the Iron Curtain were the countries that were connected to or influenced by the former Soviet Union. This included part of Germany (East Germany), Czechoslovakia, Poland, Hungary, Bulgaria, Romania, and Albania (until 1960 when it aligned with China). The iron curtain took the shape of physical borders between Eastern and Western Europe, most prominently, the Berlin Wall seal by USSR. )PRESSLER AMENDMENT Adopted 1985 of the Foreign Assistance Act of 1961 as amended. Originally banned most economic and military assistance to Pakistan unless the U. S. president certified, on an annual basis, that Pakistan did not possess a nuclear explosive device, and that the provision of U. S. aid would significantly reduce the risk of Pakistan possessing such a device. In October 1990, President George Bush was unable to issue this certification, which triggered the Pressler amendment prohibitions.In 1995, the Brown amendment exempted most forms of economic assistance from the Pressler amendment prohibitions. 9)TRACK TO DIPLOMACY: Diplomacy is the art and practice of conducting negotiations between representatives of groups or states. It usually refers to international diplomacy, the conduct of international relations through the intercession of professional diplomats with regard to issues of peace-making, trade, war, economics, culture, environment and human rights. International treaties are usually negotiated by diplomats prior to endorsement by national politicians.In an informal or social sense, diplomacy is the employment of tact to gain strategic advantage or to find mutually acceptable solutions to a common challenge, one set of tools being the phrasing of statem ents in a non-confrontational, or polite manner. The process of diplomatics, dealing with the study of old documents, also owes its name to the above, but its present meaning is completely distinct from that of diplomacy. OR Process of conducting activities with another with tact in order to bring about a good relationship.An executive who is diplomatic in dealings with clients, suppliers, and employees is careful to say the right things at the right time to avoid ill will. 1O)CRISES DIPLOMACY: This term was introduced by Dean Aitcheson, Secretary of State of U. S. in 1948. When negotiation with USSR was useless and struck in deadlock. Then Aitcheson proposed because negotiation was no successful. We must use second instrument of foreign policy. American used economic clout to protect the free world. 11)EMBARGO: Government prohibition against the shipment of certain goods to another country.An embargo is most common during wartime, but is sometimes applied for economic reasons as well. For instance, the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries placed an embargo on the shipment of oil to the West in the early 1970s to protest Israeli policies and to raise the price of petroleum. 12)EXTRATERRITORIALITY: Extraterritoriality is the state of being exempt from the jurisdiction of local law, usually as the result of diplomatic negotiations. Extraterritoriality can also be applied to physical places, such as military bases of foreign countries, or offices of the United Nations.The three most common cases recognized today internationally relate to the persons and belongings of foreign heads of state, the persons and belongings of ambassadors and certain other diplomatic agents, and ships in foreign waters. Extraterritoriality is often extended to friendly or allied militaries, particularly for the purposes of allowing that military to simply pass through one’s territory. It is distinguished from personal jurisdiction in the sense that extraterritoriality operates to the prejudice of local jurisdiction.The operation of laws upon persons existing beyond the limits of the enacting state or nation but who are still amenable to its laws. Jurisdiction exercised by a nation in other countries by treaty, or by its own ministers or consuls in foreign lands. 13)SEATO AND CENTO: i)SEATO ALLIANCE: On 8 September 1954, the Uni ted States, Britain, France, Australia, New Zealand, the Philippines, Thailand, and Pakistan signed the Southeast Asia Collective Defense Treaty in Manila. Sometimes referred to as the Manila Pact, this agreement created the Southeast Asia Treaty Organization (SEATO).The Eisenhower administration and especially Secretary of State John Foster Dulles had worked to establish this loose alliance after the Geneva Agreement on Indochina ended the French war in Southeast Asia in 1954. ii)CENTO ALLIENCE: The Central Treaty Organization (also referred to as CENTO, original name was Middle East Treaty Organization or METO, also known as the Baghdad Pact) was adopted in 1955 by Iran, Iraq, Pakistan, Turkey, and the United Kingdom. It was dissolved in 1979. 14)NEUTRALISM: This term developed during the Cold War.It is a technical term, when a state declared own self a neutral state, then that can’t participate in any kind of defnece alliance or can’t take side in any conflict. 15)LAHORE DECLARATION: In order to normalize relations between India and Pakistan, Nawaz Sharif undertook a major initiative in February 21, 1999. This initiative culminated in a visit by the Indian Prime Minister Atal Behari Vajpayee to Lahore via bus, across the Wagah border, in 1999. Nawaz Sharif met him at the Wagah border and a joint communique, known as the â€Å"Lahore Declaration†, was signed between the two leaders.The Lahore Declaration signalled a major breakthrough in overcoming the historically strained bilateral relations between the two nations in the aftermath of the nuclear tests carried out by both nations in May 1998, but would soon lose impetus with the outbreak of the Kargil War in May 1999. 16)WATERGATE SCANDAL: The Watergate scandal was a 1970s United States political scandal resulting from the break-in to the Democratic National Committee headquarters at the Watergate office complex in Washington, D. C.Effects of the scandal ultimately led to the resignation of the President of the United States, Richard Nixon, on August 9, 1974, the first and only resignation of any U. S President. It also resulted in the indictment, trial, conviction and incarceration of several Nixon administration officials. The affair began with the arrest of five men for breaking and entering into the Democratic National Committee headquarters at the Watergate complex on June 17, 1972. The FBI connected the payments to the burglars to a slush fund used by the 1972 Committee to Re-elect the President.As evidence mounted against the president’s staff, which included former staff members testifying against them in an investigation conducted by the Senate Watergate Committee, it was revealed that President Nixon had a tape recording system in his offices and that he had recorded many conversations. Recordings from these tapes implicated the president, revealing that he had attempted to cover up the break-in. After a series of court battles, the U. S. Supreme Court ruled that the president had to hand over the tapes; he ultimately complied.Facing near-certain impeachment in the House of Representatives and a strong possibility of a conviction in the Senate, Nixon resigned the office of the presidency on August 9, 1974. His successor, Gerald Ford, issued a pardon to President Nixon after his resignation. 17)BROWN AMENDMENT: The amendment was presented in the US Congress by Senator Hank Brown, hereafter referred to as the Brown Amendment. This amendment did not reverse the Pressler Amendment but provided some relaxation of the rules. The main features were: Assistance to Pakistan was to be provided in economic and humanitarian fields.Aid was to be given for the functioning of NGOs, narcotics control, antiterrorism, peacekeeping forces and development of technology. Some military aid would be released to Pakistan, except the F-16s. A resolution referred to as the ‘Sense of Congress’ was passed, under which the President was allowed to sell the F-16s to a third party and Pakistan was to be reimbursed its costs. 18)INDUS WATER TREATY (1960): The Indus Waters Treaty is a water-sharing treaty between the Republic of India and Islamic Republic Of Pakistan, brokered by the World Bank (then the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development).The treaty was signed in Karachi on September 19, 1960 by Indian Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru and President of Pakistan Mohammad Ayub Khan. The treaty was a result of Pakistani fear that since the source rivers of the Indus basin were in India, it could potentially create droughts and famines in Pakistan, especially at times of war. However, India did not revoke the treaty during any of three later Indo-Pakistani Wars. 19)COLD WAR: This term is used to describe the relationship between Ameri ca and the Soviet Union 1945 to 1980. Neither side ever fought the other – the consequences would be too appalling – but they did ‘fight’ for their beliefs using client states who fought for their beliefs on their behalf e. g. South Vietnam was anticommunist and was supplied by America during the war while North Vietnam was pro-Communist and fought the south (and the Americans) using weapons from communist Russia or communist China. In Afghanistan, the Americans supplied the rebel Afghans after the Soviet Union invaded in 1979 while they never physically involved themselves thus avoiding a direct clash with the Soviet Union. 20)COMMUNISM:Communism refers to the banishment of all the differences from the society, and people sharing all the things equally with equal status. There shouldn’t be any kind of exploitation or social inequality like women being dominated by men, racial discrimination and backward ideology. Communist society is supposed to provide equal status to everyone with the opportunity to use the resources equitably. Communism also means an extensive outlook for the betterment of society. The symbol of communism is the hammer and the chisel, wherein the hammer represents the workers and the chisel represents the farmers or the peasants. 1)CAPITALISM: Capitalism refers to the era in which all the power was concentrated in the hands of business owners or traders. The workers were treated badly and exploited. The traders worked only in their interests. It was a period where the rich became richer and the poor became poorer. This led to the formation of trade unions by the workers, leading to socialism. 22)MARSHAL PLAN: This plan was given by George Martial, after Second World War the U. S. economy continued with its pace, but the Europeans had lack of dollars, to buy the American goods. President Harry S.Trueman said if Europe could not continue to take its shares of these exports, the U. S. will go through the 30’s. Newly appointed secretary of state offered massive aid to Europe on two conditions: i) The initiative informally along terms, relations with Europe should come from European state. ii) The programme could have to be co-operative the Western Europe was given 17 billion U. S. $ for four years. Actually this aid was a plan to flight against communism. 23)SUEZ CANAL CRISES: The Suez Crisis, also referred to as the Tripartite Aggression, was a war fought by Britain, France, and Israel against Egypt beginning on 29 October 1956.The attack followed Egypt’s decision of 26 July 1956 to nationalize the Suez Canal, after the withdrawal of an offer by Britain and the United States to fund the building of the Aswan Dam, which was partly in response to Egypt recognizing the People’s Republic of China during the height of tensions between China and Taiwan. The three allies, especially Israel, were mainly successful in attaining their immediate military objectives, but pressure from the United States and the USSR at the United Nations and elsewhere forced them to withdraw.Britain and France completely failed in their political and strategic aim of controlling the canal. Israel fulfilled some of its objectives, attaining the freedom of navigation through the Straits of Tiran and the pacification of the Egyptian-Israeli border through UNEF. 24)CUBAN MISSILE CRISES: At the beginning of September 1962, U-2 spy planes discovered that the Soviet Union was building surface-to-air missile (SAM) launch sites. There was also an increase in the number of Soviet ships arriving in Cuba which the United States government feared were carrying new supplies of weapons.President John F. Kennedy complained to the Soviet Union about these developments and warned them that the United States would not accept offensive weapons (SAMs were considered to be def ensive) in Cuba. As the Cubans now had SAM installations they were in a position to shoot down U-2 spy-planes. Kennedy was in a difficult situation. Elections were to take place for the United States Congress in two month’s time. The public opinion polls showed that his own ratings had fallen to their lowest point since he became president. ******** How to cite Pak Us Relations, Papers

Directing Mind and Piercing Veil for Law-myassignmenthelp.com

Question: Discuss about theDirecting Mind and Piercing Veil for Law. Answer: Introduction: The present case is based on the two phrases of company law that are the directing mind and will and piercing corporate veil. Both the terms are important regarding the company related matters and it is important to find out the real interpretation of the terms. It has been observed that there is a mentality grows among the company directors to find any excuse to safe their interest by hiding themselves behind the shadow of the company and therefore, there is a complicated situation arose. These terms made an initiative to resolve the problem by way of a defence in favour of a company regarding all cases. Discussion: Directing Mind and Will: An analysis regarding the directing mind and will reveals that the persons who are sitting at the top of the company including the board of directors. It is a well principle of law that a company is a separate legal entity that is proved in the case of Salomon v. Salomon. Therefore, a company should not be held liable for the acts of any of its employee. However, this is also true that the company cannot perform its work by itself or without the help of the others. The case related to directing mind and will was developed in the year 1944 in the case of DPP v Kent and Sussex Contractors Ltd, where the court was pleased to observe that the company can be held liable for any illegal act as the mind of the company is regulated by the directors who have the knowledge regarding the outcome of it (Lipsitt 2013). It was held in Lennards Carrying Co. Ltd v Asiatic Petroleum Co. Ltd, it was held that the Board of Directors of the company are the persons who are involving in the action relating to the directing mind and will (De Wet 2017). There are certain acts that are not written under the constitution of the company but are related integrally to the functioning of the company. These actions are regulated by the board of directors and if there is any breach occurred regarding the same, the company will be held liable under the version of directing mind and will as held in Tesco Supermarket v Nattrass (1971) UKHL 1. Piercing the Corporate Veil: It is a well known principle of law that a company is a separate legal entity and therefore, for any kind of liability, the company cannot be held liable. It standardise the rights and liabilities of a corporation. In case of the common law country, there is leaning mentality regarding the corporate veil observed. However, in certain circumstances, these rules are pierced (Yadav 2017). Suppose a company was held liable for certain fraud cases. When the affected party sue the company as a whole, they will held the company liable for the same. It is a fact that the company cannot perform their job alone and the directors and other shareholders of the company regulating the company. When the company is getting registered, a veil regarding the separate liability cropped up. When certain allegation made against the company, it will be the duty of the court to analyse the matter and replace the main culprit of the case by lifting the corporate veil (Flint 2016). In Gilford Motor Co. Ltd v Horne, it has been observed that the corporate veil of the corporation can be uplifted where it is required regarding the appropriate cases. Conclusion: Therefore, from the case, it has been held that the principle regarding the separate entity of the company can be upheld in certain situation. The main objective of this report is to find out the grounds where the director of the company shall be held liable for any illegal acts. Reference: De Wet, M., 2017. Directing'The Absolute': towards destabilising the victim/perpetrator binary in Sam Shepard's A lie of the mind (1985) (Doctoral dissertation, University of Pretoria). Flint, D., 2016. Incentives, Employers, and the Corporate Veil: Should Domestic Corporations Be More Accountable for the Actions of Their Overseas Subsidiaries?. Ariz. St. LJ, 48, p.833. Lipsitt, L.P., 2013. impression of outside objects, whether agreeable or offensive; but the mind, possessed of a self-directing power, may turn its attention to whatever it thinks proper. It should, therefore, be employed in the most useful pursuits, not barely in contemplation but in such contemplation as may. Early Influences Shaping The Individual, 161, p.207. Yadav, P.K., 2017. Lifting of Corporate Veil.

Legal Immigration versus Illegal Immigration in America

Introduction Immigration occurs when people from a different area come to settle to another area already inhabited by the natives. People migrate from their home areas to other areas because of many factors which are usually called push factors. Push factors are those factors which motivate a person to move from their country of origin.Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on Legal Immigration versus Illegal Immigration in America specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Migration can be subdivided into various groups which include economic migration. In this case, people move from their country of origin to the desired country because they are looking for higher wages. Other factors which determine immigration are the accompanying costs. These costs include transportation costs, costs related to work time and loss of family and social bond. A person cannot migrate to another country if these costs are too high. The inc rease in technology especially in the transport sector has decreased the travel time across land and seas. This in turn has decreased the cost which makes migration less tedious. People can also migrate due to employment reasons such as in a contract, or due to religious reasons like missionaries. Diplomatic missions can also cause persons to migrate. These reasons are the ones which cause legal and illegal immigration in which their difference is demystified in this paper. It is worth noting that many people like to immigrate to America for economic reasons. Due to inhibiting factors, some end up using illegal channels, hence the term illegal immigration. If the correct channel is used the process becomes legal immigration. Legal immigration in America Legal immigration occurs when the person who is moving from their country of origin uses the correct bureaucracy to gain entry into the desired country of destination. In the United States of America, legal immigrants are those peopl e who have passed interviews in the American embassies located in their country of origin. Other ways in which a person can immigrate legally to the U.S are through diplomatic missions, work contracts and religious activities among many others. A native of a particular country can also qualify to immigrate to America if they win a green card in the green card lottery.Advertising Looking for research paper on administrative law? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More In this case the person becomes a U.S citizen automatically. This can make a person gain dual citizenship, although it depends with the constitutionality of the idea in their country of origin. Legal migration is good for America because they are more likely to be law abiding, legal immigration brings the best skills from other countries, pay into the American’s social security system, and so forth. The federal government has been able to enact policies which give legal immigrants basic rights just as the legal citizens of United States of America. This is because they passed through a tedious process of getting the visas or green cards, a process which is vital for them to get legal documents. The high skills and difference in culture, which are normally brought in by legal immigrants results in scientific and cultural achievements. Thus, the U.S has been able to benefit by tapping into these advantages. Effects of legal immigration in America Legal immigrants bring with them new skills which are needed in the American economy. The process of legal immigration is accompanied with competition in the labor market which. They bring with them cultural diversities. The process comes with scientific achievements. Legal immigrants also participate actively in the labor force[1]. The wages of some of the labor especially in the agricultural sector are usually extremely low. This is often rejected by the Native American because they are unattractive. Legal immigrants can offer such labor with these wages[2]. Illegal immigration in America Illegal immigration is the illegitimate entry into U.S of individuals who are not citizens of America. An illegal immigrant can also be a person who has an expired visa because he continued living in the host country due to various reasons. Some of them do not want to go back to their home country because they will be faced with an uncertain economic future, for political asylum[3] or if married to an American spouse would not want to be separated from the their family by being deported. These people are legal immigrants but their illegality comes due to the fact that they overstayed their temporal legality (Haines Rosenblum 1999, pp2). Effects of illegal immigration to America There are several negative effects brought about by illegal immigration in the United States of America. The problems are related to crime, diseases, problems in the education sector, housing and medical expenses. The following are some of the negative effects of illegal immigrationAdvertising We will write a custom research paper sample on Legal Immigration versus Illegal Immigration in America specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Unemployment: aliens cause unemployment rates to increase. The unemployment directly affects the legal citizens of the U.S. According to available records, it is purported that, if all illegal immigrants would lose the jobs they are currently holding, all legal American citizens would be employed. This problem is brought about because the aliens offer cheap labor. Cost for tax payers: aliens make up as much as 28% in some parts of the country[4]. They are also found in prisons at high percentage. They take a heavy toll on America’s Education, imprisonment, welfare, food stamps, and health care. Crime and terrorism; since aliens are not documented citizens of America; they are involved in various criminal activit ies which also include terrorism. Dangers to the illegal immigrants; aliens pass through a deadly process so as to gain entry into the U.S. If they survive the trip, they are either held hostage or get paid very little money for the job. The issue of illegal immigration is compounded when the aliens constitute a major segment of the labor force[5]. Housing standards usually decrease. In the recent past, the federal government has increased the housing standards. This has however led to the closure of work camps by the native out growers. Many growers usually evade legal responsibility for their living conditions thereby ending up hiring illegal immigrants. Solutions to illegal immigration to America Due to the large number of illegal immigrants in the U.S, the federal government has been compelled to find solutions that will solve this issue on a long term basis. As a result, there have been several opinions which have bee suggested that if put in place, they will help curb the vic e. Most of the illegal immigrants in the United States come from across its borders with the South American countries. It has been suggested that a fence should be erected along the U.S. Mexico border to prevent illegal immigration of people across this route. Deportation, amnesty, legalization of illegal immigrants and enforcement of existing legislature are also some of the suggestions aimed at stopping illegal immigration. This issue has continued to reverberate on the minds of the congressmen throughout the year 2005 to date. The following are some of the ways in which illegal immigrants can become legal Asylum applicants can prove their case and be legalized Workers who are not documented can find an employer who will sponsor them to gain a legal status. Relatives who reside illegally can also be sponsored when the fully confirm that they have been residing in America illegally. The federal government may also grant an amnesty which permits those who reside without proper docu mentations to become legal. In addition to this, the policies for legislation related to solutions to the problems of illegal immigration are formulated in line with various considerations. Thus family reunification and societal stability forms a strong factor worth consideration before deporting an illegal immigrant[6]. Conclusion Legal immigration in America is accompanied by introduction of new skills to the country. Other advantages include provision of labor and services which the U.S citizens reject. Legal immigrants do not cause negative economic effects to the country because they also pay taxes and a large percentage does not depend on food stamps. On the other hand illegal immigrants do cause a great harm to the American economy. This is because they take up jobs which were meant for the American at low wages. They bring with them various diseases which cause the health sector a substantial amount of money. Most of them engage in criminal activities and end up being jaile d. This also causes the government to spend a lot of money in the prison department. Illegal immigration in the U.S. should be checked because it causes the taxpayer a lot of money. Bibliography Geigenberger, Julia, 2007. The Lasting value of Legal Immigration for the United States Advertising Looking for research paper on administrative law? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More of America. New York, Druck und Bidung. Haines, David Rosenblug, Karen, 1999. Illegal Immigration in America. A Reference Handbook. New York, Greenwood Press. Loucky, James, Armstrong, Jeanne Estrada, Larry 2007. Lawrence. Immigration in America Today. West- port, Greenwood Publishing Group. Rudolph, Christopher, 2006. National Security and immigration; Policy Development in the United States and Western Europe. Stanford, Stanford University Press Footnotes There is an 86% rate of legal immigrants in the labor force. 94% of the foreign born workforce in the agricultural sector are Mexicans They may be legal but do not have the right documents for where they stay and what they do They come from Caribbean, South America, Asia and Europe contributing at least 5% each Haines Rosenblum, Illegal Immigration in America ,1999, pp2 Rudolph, Christopher, National Security and immigration Pp56 This research paper on Legal Immigration versus Illegal Immigration in America was written and submitted by user Dimitri Grimes to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

Coffee Shop ( Editing ) Example

Coffee Shop ( Editing ) Example Coffee Shop ( Editing ) – Essay Example COFFEE SHOP BUSINESS PLAN Presented By: Department Coffee House Business Plan Mission ment: My objective is to provide a highly customized, gourmet coffee experience to my customers in a luxurious yet aesthetically appealing vintage environment. Unique Selling Points: Air roasted coffee: The hand-picked coffee beans would be air roasted, rather than following the conventional method of drum roasting. This would ensure a superior level of taste, quality and texture, over the contemporary coffee shops. (Theroasterie.com, 2015). A complementary dessert would accompany a premium cup of coffee. Vintage Environment: The coffee shop would have an exotic environment, completed with antique style furnishings, and walls adorned with artwork. This would definitely attract the up-scale clientele. Vigorously trained, friendly and professional staff. A highly-customized coffee experience, allowing the customers to choose the intensity of flavors, the texture, the base bean, and the brewing method for their custom-blend. Market Segmentation: Our target market mainly consists of affluent professionals and white-collar workers looking for a quiet place to relax and rejuvenate themselves after a tiring day; retired personnel who want to sit back and enjoy their leisure time sipping their favorite beverage; and students who need a break from their studies or a cool place to hangout. Market Research: Coffee shops or cafes have become extremely, popular, promising and productive business option during the past few years (Bplans.co.uk, 2015). Apparently, there is strong competition in the market, with a number of established coffee franchises like Starbucks, Costa Coffee, The Coffee Bean, and many others ruling the market. However, these offer virtually similar and generic type of beverages, which bore the adventure-seeking and up-scale consumers. Our product/service business aims to fill this niche in the market by providing an unconventional and perfectly tailored coffee experience. (Marketing Donut, 2015) Location: The coffee shop will be located in a densely populated and commercialized area in New York City, surrounded by offices, apartments and educational institutions. This would highlight the stark contrast between the hustled outside environment, and the peaceful and quite environment of the coffee shop. Reference List Bplans.co.uk, (2015). Coffeehouse Sample Business Plan - Executive Summary. [online] Available at: bplans.co.uk/coffeehouse_business_plan/executive_summary_fc.cfm [Accessed 24 Jan. 2015]. Marketing Donut, (2015). Writing a business plan. [online] Available at: startupdonut.co.uk/startup/business-planning/writing-a-business-plan [Accessed 24 Jan. 2015]. Theroasterie.com, (2015). What is Air Roasted Coffee? | The Pilots Blog. [online] Available at: theroasterie.com/blog/what-is-air-roasted-coffee/ [Accessed 24 Jan. 2015].

Marriage Gone Wrong Spills Over to WorkView in a new window Assignment

Marriage Gone Wrong Spills Over to WorkView in a new window - Assignment Example ording to the US employment and labour laws, external harassment of an employee, not only possesses a security threat to him or her but to the whole company employees (Bennett-Alexander and Hartman). Thus, it is would be prudent for the company to develop human resource policies (protocols) that could be useful in handling situations like this. These policies are expected to be in compliance with the federal laws and the state laws of the particular state in concern. Some of the policies that could be applied in this particular situation include: As the employee in this situation had clearly put it to her supervisor, the situation in this case is personal. The simplest way to tackle this issue is for the employer to personally talk with the employee. To achieve this, a trusted member of the management team, like her supervisor, could be invited to the meeting in order for her to talk freely without feeling that her personal boundaries, as well as her constitutional rights, are being violated. Through this, the employer may be able to understand her attitude in the workplace and even officially refer her to relevant authorities who handle matrimonial issues. However, this protocol proves less effective especially given the fact that the husband’s audience in the meeting is not guaranteed. In order to avoid unnecessary chaos in the workplace, the supervisor, having been informed of the situation, should immediately alert the security department of the company of this employee’s situation. It is usual that some employees in a company usually feel demystified in the company to the extent that they feel their personal issues may not be addressed. This could be a reason as to why the employee, in this situation, felt that her supervisor should not bother telling anyone of her problem. However, her confrontation with the husband could generate a general disturbance to the company that could lead to even the arrest of the employer on allegations of improper security

Information communication technology Research Proposal

Information communication technology - Research Proposal Example This research will explore and assess the used ICT and their impact on the performance of the Food and Beverage Department and Room Division of hotels from the perspective of employees. This research will examine (a) whether employees think that ICT is functioning in the two departments, and (b) whether they think that ICT has changed the manner customer service is provided and if retention of customer loyalty has been reinforced. Both quantitative—self-administered questionnaires—and qualitative—in-depth interviews—methods will be used as the study tries to find out observations, opinions, and views of line employees and managers. ICT provides numerous benefits for hotels. One of the most important benefits is improvement in customer service and customer retention due to the likelihood of direct and close communication with the customers. This study will look at the use of ICT in room division department and food and beverage department. As reported by Ham and colleagues (2005), because ICT has been evident to significantly affect competition, hotels have extensively depended on ICT to enhance customer service and customer satisfaction. Numerous researchers have discovered that there is positive correlation between application of ICT and quality of customer service. This study will examine how the room division department uses ICT to provide personalised customer care. Likewise, this study will examine how the food and beverage department employs ICT to provide premium food and service, manage bars, restaurants, and so on. After exploring how the room division department and food and beverage department use I CT, the research will examine how line employees and managers perceive the application of ICT in these departments and its impact on customer service and customer retention. Hospitality is service-oriented in nature, with its own unique attributes which

System of Inquiry Paper Research Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

System of Inquiry - Research Paper Example Lateness is a hallmark of laziness. It shows that the individual being late is not taking enough time out in his or her day to plan the day out so that they will budget enough time to do everything that needs to get done. People who are disorganized generally have such difficulty keeping up with all the things going on around them, that they cannot focus on what is happening now. Thus, people who are disorganized are generally (but not always) late. Once people know someone is disorganized so much that they always arrive places late, they usually don't give these people the benefit of the doubt. They probably figure that this person is so discombobulated that they have no clue how to run their own lives, and, it follows that these people are probably not trusted by many people to follow through. Being late is generally a characteristic that should be looked upon with shame. Therefore, if one is always prompt, one can be proud, hold one's head up high, and know that responsibilities were taken seriously enough to have the respect for others to come to work or school on time or early. In other words, what we do matters. ... Once people know someone is disorganized so much that they always arrive places late, they usually don't give these people the benefit of the doubt. They probably figure that this person is so discombobulated that they have no clue how to run their own lives, and, it follows that these people are probably not trusted by many people to follow through. Being late is generally a characteristic that should be looked upon with shame. Therefore, if one is always prompt, one can be proud, hold one's head up high, and know that responsibilities were taken seriously enough to have the respect for others to come to work or school on time or early. It is a hallmark of an upstanding individual in the community to always be polite. "Politeness means speaking and acting in a civil way and using good manners" ("Character Attributes," 2010, p. 1). Generally, "[p]oliteness is best expressed as the practical application of good manners" ("Polite," 2010, p. 1). One may ask, "Why be polite" Polite people are more likely to get ahead in life in many ways. People who are polite have doors opened for them, and open doors for other people (literally and figuratively). Generally, people who are mean and rude are not going to get promoted at work. Nor will rude and mean people be given the benefit of the doubt when something goes wrong in their lives. People who are rude and mean are not pleasant to be around. People who are polite are much more pleasant and inviting people, and therefore people don't mind hanging around people who are polite. Politeness will bring a person success in life. No matter who one is, politeness can open doors for people. People who are nice may be more favored to get a raise. Polite people may also be

La-Mg-Ni Based Alloys

La-Mg-Ni Based Alloys Abstract: Degradation behaviors of La2MgNi9, La1.5Mg0.5Ni7 and La4MgNi19 alloys were studied. The results indicate that severe pulverization and corrosion are important factors leading to the capacity deterioration. However, it is puzzled that corrosion of the electrochemical cycled alloys is aggravated, which is inconsistent with the result that La2MgNi9 present poor cycling stability andalso the assumption that alloy with high Mg content is easy to be corroded. Then, the intrinsic anti-corrosion and anti-pulverization characteristics were mainly focused in the first part of this work. Immersion experiments demonstrate that the Mg-rich phases are more easily to be corroded. The intrinsic anti-corrosion resistance of the three alloys presents an improved trend which is inversely proportional to the abundance of the Mg-rich phases. However, the intrinsic anti-pulverization ability just presents an inverse trend, which is closely related to mechanical property of the phase structures. LaNi5 with the highest hardness is easy to crack, but the soft (La,Mg)Ni2 is more resistant to crack formation and spreading, suggesting a possibility to improve the anti-pulverization ability by adjusting the phase constitution. In general, the weaker corroded extent of La2MgNi9 in the electrochemical test is attributed to its better intrinsic anti-pulverization capability though the intrinsic anti-corrosion of La2MgNi9 is worse. As to La4MgNi19 which possesses excellent intrinsic anti-corrosion resistant, enhancement of the anti-pulverization ability is the key issue to improve the cycling stability. 1 Introduction Superlattice La-Mg-Ni based hydrogen storage alloys have received substantial attentions over the last decade because the excellent electrochemical performances used in nickel/metal hydride (Ni/MH) battery [1-5]. Up to now, A2B7 type alloys have been successful developed for the practical use [3]. However, AB2 and AB3 type alloys present poor cycling stability though the theoretical discharge capacities are higher than A2B7 type alloys [6-8]. In addition, A5B19 type alloys have been reported to possess good electrochemical performances, but they still need improvement to meet the practical application, especially on the cycling stability in the long-term reversible cycles [9-10]. It is well accepted that electrochemical capacity decrease of the metal hydride electrodes is caused by both the physical and chemical degradation [11-12]. In La-Mg-Ni system, factors affecting the capacity degradation were emphasized on pulverization and corrosion during the charge/discharge cyclings [13-17]. Corrosion leads to damage and disappearance of the phases which possess considerable hydrogen storage capacity. It has been reported that La-Mg-Ni alloys are easily to be corroded into La(OH)3 and Mg(OH)2 [13-15]. And these kinds of corrosion products are loose and passive which cannot protect the matrix for further corrosion [15-16]. Severe pulverization of La-Mg-Ni alloys during cycling had also been reported in many works [13-17]. Pulverization makes fresh surface of the electrodes alloys continuously exposed to the electrolyte and dramatically improves development of corrosion. Liu et al. classified the degradation process of the La-Mg-Ni-Co alloy into three stages: the pul verization and Mg oxidation stage, the Mg and La oxidation stage and the oxidation and passivation stage [14]. In addition, capacity degradation of the metal hydrides is closely related to the structural changes during absorption/desorption cycling. Our previous works demonstrated that transformation from crystallinity to amorphous viz. hydrogen induced amorphization (HIA) of La-Mg-Ni alloys occurred during the hydrogenation cycles and remarkably worsens both the gas-solid and electrochemical storage performances [18-19]. Understanding of the degradation mechanisms is the precondition for improvement of the cycling stability of the La-Mg-Ni based alloys. Several compounds including AB2, AB3, A2B7 and A5B19 type phase exist in this system, and the alloys usually present multi-phase microstructure. Though quiet a number of efforts have been applied on the degradation characters of the La-Mg-Ni based alloys, these works mainly focused on the overall capacity deterioration behaviors of the alloys. Diversity of the degradation characteristics of various compounds in this system is also lacking. In the present study, degradation mechanisms of three typical La-Mg-Ni alloys: La2MgNi9, La1.5Mg0.5Ni7 and La4MgNi19 have been systematically investigated. In the first part of this work, corrosion and pulverization behaviors of the alloys, especially the intrinsic characteristics of the AB3, A2B7 and A5B19 type La-Mg-Ni phases during absorption/desorption cycling were generated. In a following paper, HIA and its in fluence on the hydrogen storage properties are discussed. 2 Experimental materials and methods 2.1 Alloy preparation The as-cast La2MgNi9, La1.5Mg0.5Ni7 and La4MgNi19 alloy was prepared by induction levitation melting under argon atmosphere. The as-cast alloys were remelted twice for homogeneity. Appropriate excess of Mg was added in order to compensate for the evaporative loss of Mg during melting. Then the as-cast La2MgNi9, La1.5Mg0.5Ni7 and La4MgNi19 alloys were annealed at 1143, 1173 and 1193 K respectively for 6 h protected in argon atmosphere. 2.2 Characterization The sample was fine polished and then etched using a mixed etchant (including water, ethanol, acetic acid, picric acid, nitric acid and hydrochloric acid) at 343K. Then metallographic microstructure of the alloys was observed using a laser scanning confocal microscope (LSCM: Olympus-OLS4000). Phase constitution of the alloys was also characterized by a scanning electron microscopy (SEM: FEI-Qanta 400) under backscatter electron mode (BSE) applied on the unetched samples. The chemical composition of various phases was studied by energy dispersive spectroscopy (EDS) equipped in the SEM. Crystal structures of the alloys were measured by an X-ray diffractometer (XRD: Bruker-D8 Advance) with Cu KÃŽÂ ±1 radiation. Micro-morphologies and selected area electron diffraction (SAED) were applied by means of a transmission electron microscopy (TEM: JEOL-2100 and FEI-F20) to examine the microstructural and crystallographic information. TEM samples were firstly crushed the bulk into fine powder , and then ultrasonic dispersion was performed in ethanol for 1800 s. Several drops of the mixed liquid were laid on a carbon membrane support on the copper grid, and dried in a vacuum oven. Particle size of the cycled alloys was tested by a laser particle size analyzer (Malvern-Mastersizer 3000) where the alloy particles were dispersed by absolute alcohol. Oxygen content of the electrochemical cycled and immersed alloys was performed on a nitrogen/oxygen tester (NCS-ON3000). Before the oxygen test, samples were immersed in deionized water for 24 h, then washed using absolute alcohol twice to remove the residual KOH, and dried in a vacuum drying oven. 2.3 Hydrogen storage properties Gas-solid cycling and PCT isotherm measurement were carried out by Suzuki -2SDWIN PCT system at 303K (Sieverts type). Before the PCT analysis, sample was activated as follow: evacuated at 473 K for 2 h, placed to 303K, hydrogenated under 3Mpa H2 (Purity 99.999%) pressure for 5 h, evacuated at 573 K for 2 h again. Each cycle consists of absorption at 2MPa for 600s and desorption by evacuating at 298K for 1200 s. For the electrochemical measurement, the alloy particles (40-50 µm) were mixed with carbonyl nickel powder in a weight ratio of 1:5 and cold pressed to form a pellet about 1g firstly. The pellets were then packed in a Ni foam substrate spot-welded with a Ni strip. The simulated three-electrode cell including a working electrode (metal hydride), a counter electrode (NiOOH/Ni(OH)2) and a reference electrode (Hg/HgO) was installed. Before electrochemical test, the alloy metal hydride electrode was immersed in 6 M KOH aqueous solution for 1d. The measurement to get the maximum capacity and cycling stability was to charge at current density of 105 mA/g for 4h followed by a rest of 10min, then discharged at the same current density to the cut-off voltage of -0.6 V. 3 Results and discussions 3.1 Microstructure and hydrogen storage performances LSCM and BSE micrographs of the three alloys are shown in Fig.1. Four contrasts can be detected in the La2MgNi9 alloy. The chemical quantitations of various contrast from EDS analysis are listed in Table 1, from which the four phases are speculated to be (La,Mg)Ni2, (La,Mg)Ni3, (La,Mg)2Ni7 and LaNi5. Five crystal structures including CaCu5-type, MgCu4Sn-type, PuNi3-type, Ce2Ni7-type and Gd2Co7-type are identified in XRD profile of the La2MgNi9 alloy, as shown in Fig.2. The structural parameters and phase abundance are refined and listed in Table 2. The results are in consistent with the metallographic observation that the main phase is (La,Mg)Ni3, then (La,Mg)Ni2and (La,Mg)2Ni7, but content of LaNi5 is rare. In case of the La1.5Mg0.5Ni7 and La4MgNi19 alloy, metallographic and XRD characterization indicate that (La,Mg)Ni2disappears, (La,Mg)5Ni19 emerges and LaNi5 increases with elevation of the B-side stoichiometry. The main phase of the La1.5Mg0.5Ni7 and La4MgNi19 alloy is (La,Mg)2Ni7 and (La,Mg)5Ni19 respectively, and the structural parameters and phase abundance are also listed in Table 2. Fig.3 displays P-C-Tcurves of the alloys, and the detailed data are given in Table 3. Theoretically, hydrogenation capability increases with reduction of the B-side stoichiometry in the La-Mg-Ni based alloys. However, the maximum hydrogen absorption content of the La2MgNi9 alloy is slightly lower than the La1.5Mg0.5Ni7 alloy. It is ascribed to the fact that some (La,Mg)Ni2 which can hardly absorb and desorb hydrogen at room temperature [8], existing in the La2MgNi9 alloy. The three alloys have analogic hydrogen absorption plateau. But both the desorption pressure and the reversible hydrogen capacity elevate with increase of the B-side stoichiometry of the three alloys. Reversible hydrogen capacity of the AB3-typed La2MgNi9 alloy is only 1.15 wt%, and the hysteresis effect is more evident than the other alloys. Electrochemical discharge curves and performances of the alloys are shown in Fig.4 and Table 3 respectively. Discharge capacities of the La2MgNi9 and La4MgNi19 alloy are lower than the La1.5Mg0.5Ni7 alloy. The lower discharge capacity of La2MgNi9 is due to the weak reversible hydrogen storage capacity. As to the La4MgNi19 alloy, it is attributed to high abundance of LaNi5 which is unsuited for the electrochemical application without alloying [20]. Furthermore, La1.5Mg0.5Ni7 presents better cycling stability than the other two alloys. Capacity retention after 100 cycles of the La2MgNi9 alloy is similar with that of the La4MgNi19 alloy. 3.2 Degradation characteristics after electrochemical cycling From morphology and EDS results of the alloys, it is clear that pulverization and corrosion have occurred after electrochemical cycling by 100 times (only La2MgNi9 alloy presents in Fig.5). XRD analysis shows that La(OH)3, Mg(OH)2 and La2O3 appear in the cycled alloys, as displayed in Fig.6. Likewise, morphology and SAED analysis of TEM confirm existence of La(OH)3 combined with La2O3 (stick-like), Mg(OH)2 (needle-like) and MgO (particles), which are marked with 1, 2 and 3 respectively as illustrated in Fig.7. The results are in consistent with the other literature studied on the corrosion products of a La1.5Mg0.5Ni7 alloy [21]. Detailed determinations of TEM are provided in the supplementary information (Fig.S1-S3). In addition, size and amount of La(OH)3 and La2O3 are obvious than that of Mg(OH)2 and MgO, indicating that corrosion of La is significant in the electrochemical environment. Mg(OH)2 and MgO are close to the alloy surface but very loose. It agrees well with the previous works that corrosion products of Mg are gel-type and cannot form a solid protection layer for further corrosion [15-16]. Compared among the three alloys, it is noteworthy that corrosion productions of the La2MgNi9alloy are less than the other alloys (see in Fig.6). Identically, oxygen contents of the electrochemical cycled alloys follow the order that La2MgNi9 1.5Mg0.5Ni7 4MgNi19, indicating that the corroded extent are aggravated (see in Fig.8). It is puzzled that the result is inconsistent with the electrochemical performances that La2MgNi9 possesses poor cycling stability. It also disagrees with the consideration that high Mg content is harmful to the corrosion resistance in La-Mg-Ni based alloys [22-24]. In order to comprehend this fact further, the intrinsic anti-corrosion resistance of the three alloys was investigated next. 3.3 The intrinsic anti-corrosion properties To avoid impacts of pulverization on the corrosion behaviors, the alloy particles with the same diameter (around 40 ÃŽÂ ¼m) were immersed in KOH solution at 60  °C for 15 d. Then the morphology, phase structure and oxygen content were measured for characterization of the intrinsic corrosion behaviors. SEM micrographs and EDS analysis of the alloy particles illustrate that severe corrosion occurred after immersion, the typical results are shown in Fig.9 (only La2MgNi9 alloy particles are given here). Compared to the electrochemical cycled alloys, the stick-like products which have been confirmed as composite of La(OH)3 and La2O3, are remarkable in the immersed samples which is due to aggravated corrosion at higher temperature. XRD profiles identify that the corrosion products are mainly La(OH)3, but La2O3 cannot be detected in the immersed alloys, as shown in Fig.10. Coincidently, SAED by TEM found that the stick-shaped phase is single-phase La(OH)3, as shown in Fig.11. The result suggests that La2O3 transforms to La(OH)3 during evolution of the corrosion process. Besides, Mg(OH)2 and MgO are also found existing in the immersed samples, and their morphologies are same with that in the electrochemical cycled alloys. However, Mg(OH)2can only be detected in La2MgNi9 from the identifications of XRD, indicating that corrosion of Mg is violent in La2MgNi9. Fig.12 is the oxygen contents of the immersed alloys, from which severity of corrosion of the three alloys are La2MgNi9 > La1.5Mg0.5Ni7 > La4MgNi19. To provide detailed information of the relationship between the corrosion behaviors and phase constitution, immersion test applied on the massive samples has also been studied (the condition is same with that of the powder samples). Fig.13 shows the SEM-BSE micrographs of the immersed samples (only La1.5Mg0.5Ni7 alloy are present here). Obviously, the corroded extent is inhomogeneous which is considered to be caused by differences of the anti-corrosion capabilities of the various phases. EDS analysis on two regions with diverse corrosion grades (as marked with 1 and 2 in Fig.13) shows no Mg but less O existing in region 1. Whereas, more Mg and O are detected in region 2 with severe corroded extent than region 1. Likewise, EDS-mapping indicates that the region possessing more Mg presents richer O, as shown in Fig.14. Similar result is more evident in the as-cast alloys, which is attributed to the inhomogeneous chemical composition and microstructure of the as-cast alloy, details can b e seen in the supplementary (Fig. S4 and S5). The aforementioned results demonstrate that the Mg-rich phases are easy to be corroded in the alkaline solution. It has been well demonstrated that Mg solubility in La-Mg-Ni alloys follows the order that (La,Mg)Ni2> (La,Mg)Ni3 > (La,Mg)2Ni7 > (La,Mg)5Ni19 > LaNi5 [25]. Thus the intrinsic anti-corrosion resistances of various phases in the La-Mg-Ni system are considered to be according with the inverse trend. This result is in agreement with several works where AB2and AB3 type La-Mg-Ni alloys have suffered serious corrosion after electrochemical experiments [8, 23-24]. The tendency is also exactly identical with that the anti-corrosion resistance is inversely proportional to the abundance of the Mg-rich phases. La2MgNi9 presents worse anti-corrosion capability because contents of the Mg-rich (La,Mg)Ni2and(La,Mg)Ni3 arehigher thanthe other two alloys. However, trend of the intrinsic anti-corrosion resistance is opposite to the corrosion extent of the three alloys after electrochemical cyclings. Concern to the fact that corrosion extent of the electrode alloys is also closely related to severity of pulverization during the electrochemical charge/discharge process, the pulverization properties of the alloys are carefully characterized then. 3.4 The intrinsic anti-pulverization properties In order to avoid influence of the additives in the electrochemical test on characterization of the intrinsic pulverization behaviors, the alloys are gaseous hydrogenated and dehydrogenated for 30 cycles. Morphology observation indicates that remarkable pulverization has occurred where decrease of the particle size and emergence of cracks can be seen clearly in the cycled alloys, as shown in Fig.15 (only La2MgNi9 alloy are present here). Then the particles sizes before (Sb) and after (Sa) cycling are measured and the size retention is calculated by Sb/Sa. It (Fig.16) shows that severity of pulverization for the three alloys are La2MgNi9 1.5Mg0.5Ni7 4MgNi19, which is just contrary to the tendency of the corrosion extent after the immersion experiment. Combined with the results of the intrinsic anti-corrosion and pulverization characterization, we can conclude that the weaker corrosion extent of La2MgNi9 in the electrochemical test is attributed to its better intrinsic anti-pulverization capability though the intrinsic anti-corrosion of La2MgNi9 is worse. It has been well accepted that pulverization is induced by the cell volume expansion upon hydrogen absorption [11-12]. Thus, large volume change leads to severe pulverization. Unfortunately, exact measurement of the volume expansion in the present work is difficult due to the multi-phase microstructure. Instead, we summarize the volume changes according to other experimental works where microstructures of these alloys are all sing-phase to ensure the accuracy as far as possible. Based on the data as listed in Table 4, there is no regular trend for the volume changes among the various structures in La-Mg-Ni system. And, no special relationship between the reported volume expansion data and the pulverization performances in the present work can be found. Besides, pulverization is believed to depend on the mechanical properties of the alloys [11-12]. Alloys with the more ductile character are more resistant to pulverization than the brittle materials. Usually, hydrogen storage alloys ar e hard and brittle, thus measuring ductility directly is difficult. Alternatively, Vickers hardness has been used to evaluate the preference of pulverization for the hydrogen storage alloys. And, previous works have found an almost inverse relationship between Vickers hardness and the pulverization rate [11-12, 30], suggesting the availability of Vickers hardness measurement on characterization of the anti-pulverization ability. Fig.17 gives indentations of the various phases in La2MgNi9 and La1.5Mg0.5Ni7 alloy. Evolution of Vickers hardness can be seen in Fig.18. It presents a linear relation between the Vickers hardness and B-side stoichiometry of the structures, which also agrees well with the pulverization behaviors of the alloys. Obviously, the mechanical property is an important factor affecting the anti-pulverization ability in the La-Mg-Ni phases. It is found that hardness differences of the AB3, A2B7 and A5B19 type phase are small. Under low loading of the hardness test, micro-cracks can hardly be observed in all the above three phases. Since the test force increase, micro-cracks can be seen in all these phases, but there is no obvious difference between them. Differently, LaNi5 is the hard phase, but hardness of (La,Mg)Ni2 is far more lower than the other phases. To comprehend more understanding on the crack formation of various phases, a massive sample with a polished surface was partial charged by electrochemical method, and the morphology and distribution of crack was observed. To highlight character of the hard and soft phase, the as-cast La2MgNi9 alloy was selected for the high abundance of LaNi5 and (La,Mg)Ni2. Microstructure characteristics of the as-cast La2MgNi9 alloy are given in the supplementary (Fig.S6-S7). As shown in Fig.19, quite a number of cracks can be observed in the sample which is only charged for 10 min. Most of the cracks exist in LaNi5 with the darkest contrast in the BSE image. One reason is that LaNi5 is the catalytic phase that primarily charged in the La-Mg-Ni system [31-32]. More importantly, it also ascribes to the brittle character of LaNi5 which agrees well with the above result that the hard phase is easy to crack formation. It is noteworthy that cracks are often stopped in front of (La,Mg)Ni2. Obviously, the soft phase is more resistant to crack formation and able to prevent the crack spreading. Similar result has been reported in other literatures where ductile secondary phases are believed to be beneficial to the cycling stability [33]. According to the above results, we can conclude that La4MgNi19 alloy is easy to pulverization as the high abundance of the hard phases LaNi5 and (La,Mg)5Ni19. As to La2MgNi9, little LaNi5 but existence of the soft (La,Mg)Ni2 and (La,Mg)Ni3 make it more resistant to crack emergence. These findings enlighten a way to improve the anti-pulverization ability by introduction appropriate abundance and distribution of soft secondary phases. 4 Conclusions In the present study, corrosion and pulverization behaviors of three typical La-Mg-Ni alloys: La2MgNi9, La1.5Mg0.5Ni7 and La4MgNi19 have been systematically investigated. All the alloys present multi-phase microstructure with (La,Mg)Ni3, (La,Mg)2Ni7and (La,Mg)5Ni19 as the main phase respectively. La1.5Mg0.5Ni7 possesses better electrochemical properties among the three alloys. It is found that pulverization and corrosion with the main product La(OH)3, combined with La2O3, Mg(OH)2 and MgO, have occurred after the electrochemical cycling. The overall corrosion extent of the electrochemical cycled alloys follow the order that La2MgNi9 1.5Mg0.5Ni7 4MgNi19. Immersion test demonstrate that the Mg-rich phases are easy to be corroded in the alkaline solution. The intrinsic anti-corrosion resistance are found to be La2MgNi9 1.5Mg0.5Ni7 4MgNi19, which is inversely proportional to the abundance of the Mg-rich phases. However, the intrinsic anti-pulverization ability just presents an inverse tre nd that La2MgNi9 > La1.5Mg0.5Ni7 > La4MgNi19. It is found that the mechanical property is an important factor affecting the anti-pulverization ability. Vickers hardness elevates with increase of the B-side stoichiometry of the various phases, which agrees well with the pulverization behaviors of the alloys. Furthermore, LaNi5 with the highest hardness is found to be easy to crack formation, but the soft (La,Mg)Ni2 is more resistant to crack formation and able to prevent the crack spreading. The weaker corrosion extent of La2MgNi9 in the electrochemical test is attributed to its better intrinsic anti-pulverization capability though the intrinsic anti-corrosion of La2MgNi9 is worse. 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